Music Analysis free essay sample

â€Å"Bitch Bad† is popular hip-hop song performed by Chicago native rapper, Lupe Fiasco. The song depicts the word bitch in the many forms that it is used in today’s urban society. The song starts with a dark weary synthesizer and a heavy deep 808 drum pattern that reflects the sound that is used in many of today’s popular club/party songs. The words to the song shine a stereotypical light on â€Å"bad bitches,† but there is a twist. Fiasco highlights 3 significant points which is the basis of the song, â€Å"Bitch bad, woman good, lady better† (Fiasco, Bitch Bad). By producing this song, Lupe Fiasco points out the relevance and impact that the term has on modern day youth. Fiasco also wanted to make an attempt to steer people in the opposite direction from the normal stereotype of the well-known and overrated term ‘bad bitch. ’ As the first verse starts, Fiasco brings listeners into the world of a young male, around the age of 4 or 5 that picks up on the music his mother listens to that has references of women as being bad bitches. We will write a custom essay sample on Music Analysis or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Fiasco describes how the mother sings to the song playing and her son is listening to her sing along to the lyrics. Fiasco states the more the son hears his mother play this type of music, he develops a certain complex on how he views women that use the â€Å"bad bitch† phrase. By the son being such a tender age, he receives the song based on what he sees in his mother instead of the derogatory way the song is describing women. The young boy forms his own opinion of the bad bitch theory. His own mother, whom he looks up to and admires, calls herself a bad bitch, so he depicts the term â€Å"bad bitch† to be positive. To him it resembles a strong, independent, respectful woman because this is how he sees his mother, as opposed to a woman that is weak, dependent and unstable. The hook to the song â€Å"Bitch Bad† illuminates the 3 categories of women: bitch, woman, and lady. â€Å"Bitch bad, woman good/ Lady better, they misunderstood/ (Im killin these bitches)† (Fiasco, Bitch Bad). These lyrics are self-explanatory. This hook is saying that being called a bitch is a bad thing, being called a woman is better, but being called a lady is phenomenal. Lupe Fiasco is trying to tell young girls, or young women, what they should be trying to aspire to be instead of trying to be what they see on the television screens or hear on the radio. More recently in urban society being a woman or a lady has lost its value. The message that Lupe Fiasco is trying to send out to the audience of this song is that being a bad bitch is not a positive look. In verse two of the song â€Å"Bad Bitch,† Fiasco breaks down how a young group of girls in their pre-teen stage listen to songs and watch music videos on the internet. The videos are uncensored and because they know more about the internet than their parents, they don’t get parental consent. Children tend to know a lot more about modern day technology than their parents. This is how children such as the ones described in this verse, are able to watch uncensored items online. The young girls are at an age where they need a positive female role model, but instead they are influenced by the women they see in music videos. These young girls receive a different persona of a bad bitch than the young boy in the first verse. Bad bitches to them are women that have sex appeal, skinny with big butts, and wear sexy and revealing clothing. As the song states â€Å"High heels, long hair, fat booty, slim They don’t see a paid actress, just what makes a bad bitch† (Fiasco, Bitch Bad). The girls have this image in their heads, and without proper guidance, this is what they want to grow up to be. The third verse begins by Fiasco stating that he is not trying to teach children to use the term â€Å"bitch† but as a psychological way to let listeners know that he is against the use of the word. This verse combines the first two and it continues with the observation of how small the world really is and the young boy from the first verse and one of the young girls from the second verse meet. Fiasco continues on to illustrate how the boy is viewing the girl in an insolent way based on how she is dressed, but she is saying it in a sexual way. His viewing of a bad bitch is not what the girl is showcasing. Sure enough, in this little world/The little boy meets one of those little girls/And he thinks she a bad bitch/And she thinks she a bad bitch/He thinks disrespectfully/She thinks of that sexually/She got the wrong idea/He don’t wanna fuck her/He thinks she’s bad at being a bitch/Like his mother† (Fiasco, Bitch Bad). She is flaunting her half-dressed body i n front of him, yet he is telling her that his mother didn’t do things like that, and that is what he knows to be a bad bitch. The young man fostered his view on the term from what he saw in his mother, a respectful woman. They young lady obtained her view from the flashy video girls she saw in music videos. The term ‘bad’ back in earlier years portrayed a woman who had her life together and was sexy in a respectful way. She was the woman that didn’t need assistance from the male counterpart. Black moguls in the rap/hip hop community, such as Dame Dash, Russell Simmons, Nicki Minaj, and Jay-Z have taken the word ‘bad’ and made the ‘bitch’ addition and spread it through the black culture. Now a female who has lower standards perceives that she’s a bad bitch because she is being uplifted by the black urban community. Society today can take the term â€Å"bad bitch’ as being either good or bad. Marc Hogan, writer for Spin Magazine, stated â€Å"Clearly, something has changed in hop hop’s relationship with anti-woman slurs†¦and that’s ostensibly what Lupe Fiasco tries to address†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Hogan). The perception of women slurs all depend on individual perceptions and how much impact social media has on an individual. This song released in August 2012. Upon its music video release, MTV did an interview with Lupe Fiasco. During this interview, Fiasco stated that he â€Å"just wanted to have a conversation,† (Fiasco, Interview). Lupe also suggested that because there is no solidification to the term bad bitch, â€Å"†¦it’s definitely something that I think we should talk about because it’s so prevalent in our culture right now† (Fiasco, Interview). Lupe is trying to get the world to understand that a bad bitch is a double standard as stated in the lyrics â€Å"Bad mean good to her/She really nice and smart/ But bad mean bad to him/Bitch don’t play your part/ But bitch still bad to her if you say it the wrong way/ But she think she a bitch/What a double entendre† (Fiasco, Bitch Bad). Rob Markman stated that â€Å"Lupe Fiasco knows all too well the power of words. † This is very true. Fiasco’s music is well known in the hip hop industry for relaying some kind of message. Lupe Fiasco did precisely what he set out to do, spark a conversation and produce different point of views. â€Å"Depending on where you stand, the term â€Å"bad bitch† may have positive or negative connotations†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Markman). Fiasco let the world know that is was more to being a ‘bad bitch’. What viewers see in music videos is only one perception. Needless to say, â€Å"†¦whether you consider â€Å"bitch† empowering or degrading, there is always something to ponder on† (Viera), and Lupe Fiasco definitely gave his listeners, and non-listeners, something to think about.

African American History Report

African American History Report Free Online Research Papers African Americans overcame the days of slavery because of the all struggles they went through. Which parts of the African American History matters the most? When exploring African American history, the most important things to focus on are that because of the times, black people were enslaved and treated poorly. They endured it all and worked hard to rise above the boundaries of slavery and prejudice. However, the most portentous aspect of African-American history is that it’s heritage; its history; and it are over. Now an African American has become the President of the United States of America. (African American History). During the slavery years, African people were subjected to some of the worst treatments of the history of this planet. They were forced to work for white people as slaves, but that is nothing compared with the treatment they received. Slaves were beaten, mal-nourished, and disrespected as a whole. Slaves were considered as low as the lowest forms of life. They were treated less than some forms of life. They were treated as property that was disposable and replaceable. (To Be A Slave). Slavery was a major issue in the 19th century. African Americans over came so many trials and tribulations during the 1960s. The African Americans encountered a widespread of social and professional discrimination. Their unrest demanded activism, many African American artists created imagery intended for black audiences. Black expressionism was born out of the Civil Rights Movement. The artworks it engendered – primarily brightly colored figurative compositions were expressive, rich in palette, and politically charged. Expressionists explored a wide range of subjects and techniques, all seeking to portray black pride and identity. (WPA). The process of ending slavery was the subject of intense debate in the United States during the first part of the 19th century was a big issue for the African Americans. Slavery was abolished throughout the United States with the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution in 1865. An estimated four million slaves were freed.Today, African Americans constitute 13.3 percent of the total U.S. population, the second largest ethnic group after Hispanics. Even after the end of slavery, however, American blacks were generally hampered by segregation and inferior education, despite the establishment of some institutions dedicated to their advancement. In the late twentieth century, the struggle by black artists to create an African American cultural identity evolved into a desire for recognition of their creative achievements as artists, regardless of their race. Over the course of the century, the production of images that focus on African American life, its history in th e United States, and its African heritage cultivated a unique artistic character and helped to overcome social injustice. We hope that this exhibition reveals the beauty of African American art, an art that defies categorization (Langston Hughes). African Americans have contributed a great deal too the American culture. There are so many famous African Americans and so many accomplishments by them such as: Jan Ernst Matzeliger invented a shoemaking machine that increased shoemaking speed by 900%.Lewis Latimer invented an important part of the light bulb- the carbon filament, Granville T. Woods invented a train-to-station communication system, George Washington Carver invented peanut butter and 400 plant products! Garrett Morgan invented the gas mask. Otis Boykin invented the electronic control devices for guided missiles, IBM computers, and the pacemaker. Dr. Patricia. E. Bath (1949–) invented a method of eye surgery that has helped many blind people to see. Imagine yourself in the shoes of these inventors. Think about being in a situation where you are the first person to break into a job where no one else like you has ever worked. Imagine how hard you would have to work to prove yourself especially being an Af rican American. (Mary Bellis). Dr.Martin Luther King, Jr. whom was very important African American minister, clergyman, activist and prominent leader in the American civil rights movement. His lectures and dialogues stirred the concern and sparked the conscience of a generation. The movements and marches he led brought significant changes in the fabric of American life through his courage and self devotion. This devotion gave direction to the thirteen years of civil rights activities. His charismatic leadership inspired men and women, young and old, in this nation and around the world . Dr.Martin Luther King Jr. was a civil Rights leader who was well known for his famous speech â€Å"Free at Last† and who now has his own national holiday that we all celebrate (The King Center). Barack Obama an African American who became the 44th president of the United States and the first African-American President in U.S. history. After working at Business International Corporation (A company that provided international business information to corporate clients) and NYPIRG, Obama moved to Chicago in 1985. There, he worked as a community organizer with low-income residents in Chicago’s Roseland community and the Altgeld Gardens public housing development on the city’s South Side. During these years, Obama worked with both Democrats and Republicans in drafting legislation on ethics, expanded health care services and early childhood education programs for the poor. He also created a state earned-income tax credit for the working poor. And after a number of inmates on death row were found innocent, Obama worked with law enforcement officials to require the videotaping of interrogations and confessions in all capital cases. (History Channel). In the November 2004 general election, Obama received 70% of the vote to Keyess 27%, the largest electoral victory in Illinois history. Obama became only the third African- American elected to the U.S. Senate since Reconstruction. In February 2007, Obama made headlines when he announced his candidacy for the 2008 Democratic Presidential nomination. He was locked in a tight battle with former first lady and current U.S. Senator from New York, Hillary Rodham Clinton until he became the presumptive nominee on June 3, 2008. On November 4th, 2008, Obama defeated Republican president nominee John McCain for the position of U.S. President. He is now the 44th president of The United States. Oprah Winfery who launched the Oprah Winfrey Show in 1986 as a nationally syndicated program with its placement on 120 channels and an audience of 10. million people, the show grossed $125 million by the end of its first year, of which Winfrey received $30 million. She soon gained ownership of the program from ABC, drawing it under the control of her new production company, Harpo Productions (‘Oprah’ spelled backwards) and making more and more money from syndication. Resulting in becoming the richest African American women in the world. (AAH). Rosa Parks as the mother of the Civil Rights Movement. Her refusal to surrender her seat to a white passenger on a Montgomery, Alabama bus spurred on a city-wide boycott and helped launch nation-wide efforts to end segregation of public facilities. Rosa Parks received many accolades during her lifetime including the Spingarn Medal, the NAACPs highest award. She also received the Martin Luther King Jr. Award. On September 9, 1996 President Bill Clinton awarded Rosa Parks the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest honor given by the U.S. executive branch. The next year, she was awarded the Congressional Gold Medal, the highest award given by the U.S. legislative branch. In 1999, Time magazine named Rosa Parks one of the 20 most influential people of the twentieth century. (History Channel). Malcolm X A Controversial Civil Rights Activists Influential Advocate of Black Nationalism In the four years of the American Civil War, the United States began to redeem itself. African Americans as human beings went through so much in their days from the 250-year-long tragedy of slavery.While some people have proposed the offering of reparations, there is a belief that this will never happen due to the unwillingness of white people to make an effort. The call for reparations seems to have been adjusted to merely a call for an official government apology. Some white people argue against an apology for slavery because they dont feel responsible for the acts. This would justify the call for reparations. At the time this text was originally typed, African Americans have not received reparations or an official government apology for slavery. Some feelings and attitudes toward slavery have changed very little in the past 400 years. Throughout this time frame, white people have continued to collectively hold higher socioeconomic positions than Black people in the United States. (African American Atlas). This position of power and wealth may make the issue of reparations seem almost like an attack because it seems to be Black people trying to take things from white people for something that happened long before these people were born. Black people still suffer from the effects of slavery and some can still see the need for reparati ons, or an official apology for African American slavery. Therefore, the discussion and conflicts may continue for a long time. Other ethnic groups fought for reparations for many years, finally reaching their goal. Perseverance is a part of being black, and while we cannot determine the outcome of all the call for reparations,Or if the issue will be important in the future, we can be assured that our people will not allow the importance of our struggles to be forgotten. (American Atlas). As anyone can see, the preceding people faced suffering at the hands of others. Slavery was wrong. Yet, each person persevered and won his or her own battles one way or another. It took years and a lot of work. Being a part of history should be respected as just so. These people should be remembered and studied, but not necessarily glorified. Some slaves earned freedom by hard work; yet others took different approaches that weren’t always admirable. In addition, the people of today’s generation should not be blamed for what happened in the past, which is beyond our control. (African American History). America is made up of different languages and cultures, and though we are different in heritage we need to unite as a country. Nothing can be done to repair the wrongs of slavery. No matter how much time goes by, slavery will always be a ghost in Americas past, spooking anyone who looks back. Now America needs to look forward to a tomorrow where slavery doesnt exist, where blacks and whites are equal, and where racism isnt a factor. We need to make that happen. I believe reparations to be ones in a new generation of Americans. Perhaps the most America can do for its people is to apologize for slavery, promise it will not ever happen again, and then concentrate on working towards a better tomorrow. African Americans overcame many trials and tribulations during the 19th century. In conclusion, many people doubted African Americans but we have come a long way today in the 21st century. We’ve come from being slaves; someone owning us, to President of the United States. This proves that we are all equal no matter what your race or religion is. It also proves you can be anything in the world if you really want. If you set your mind to something you really want to do you can do it. References â€Å"African American History: Heritage, not Hate.† 123 HelpMe.com13 Mar 2009 Encyclopedia: Lincoln, Abraham. (2004). The History Channel website. Retrieved 19:13, May 9, 2006, from historychannel.com/thcsearch/thc_resourcedetail.do?encyc_id=214843. â€Å"To Be A Slave.† 123HelpMe.com. 13 Mar 2009 The African-American atlas: Black history and culture / Molefi K. Asante and Mark Mattson. New York: Macmillan, 1998. Reference E185.A79 1998 [Chapter 2: The Transatlantic Journey. African American History, Microsoft ® Encarta ® Online Encyclopedia 2008 http://encarta.msn.com  © 1997-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved Research Papers on African American History Report19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraBook Review on The Autobiography of Malcolm XHip-Hop is ArtBringing Democracy to AfricaThe Effects of Illegal ImmigrationCapital PunishmentComparison: Letter from Birmingham and CritoWhere Wild and West MeetPersonal Experience with Teen PregnancyRelationship between Media Coverage and Social and

Preparing Students for the Testing Season

Preparing Students for the Testing Season Spring  is traditionally the  season  of beginnings, and for middle and high school students, spring is often the beginning of the testing season. There are district tests, state tests, and national tests for students in grades 7-12 that begin in March and continue through the end of the school year. Many of these tests are mandated by legislation.   In a typical public school, a student will take  at least one  standardized test  annually. Those high school students who enroll in college credit courses  may take even more tests. Each of these standardized tests is designed to take a minimum of 3.5 hours to complete. Adding up this time over the course of  the six years between grades 7-12, the average student participates in standardized testing for 21 hours or  the  equivalent of  three full  school days. Educators can first provide the information that helps students better understand the purpose of a specific test. Is the test going to measure their individual growth or is the test going to measure their performance against others?   Two Kinds of Standardized Testing for Grades 7-12 The  standardized tests  that are used in grades 7-12 are either  designed as norm-referenced or as criterion-referenced tests. Each test is designed for a different measure. A norm-referenced test is designed to compare and rank students (similar in age or grade) in relation to one another: Norm-referenced tests report whether test takers performed better or worse than a hypothetical average student Norm-referenced tests usually are simple to administer and easy to score because they are usually designed as multiple-choice tests.    The criterion-referenced  tests are designed to measure student performance against an expectation: Criterion-referenced  tests and  assessments  are designed to measure student performance against a fixed set of predetermined criteria or  learning standards Learning standards are descriptions by grade level of what students are expected to know and be able to do.  The criterion-referenced tests used to measure learning progress can also measure gaps in student learning.   Preparing Students for the Structure of Any Test Teachers can help prepare students for both  kinds standardized tests, both norm-referenced  tests and criterion-referenced  tests. Educators can explain to students the purpose of both criterion referenced and  the norm-referenced test so students will have a better understanding when they read the results. Most importantly, they can expose students to the pace of the exam, to the format of the exam and to the language of the exam. There are practice passages  in texts and online from different tests that will allow students to become more familiar with  the format of the test. To prepare students for the pace of the exam, teachers can offer some practice testing under conditions that mimic the actual test. There are released tests or materials that mimic the test that students should be encouraged to take independently. A timed practice text is particularly helpful is giving students the experience so they will know how fast they have to move to answer all the questions. Multiple practice sessions for timed essay writing should be offered if there is an essay section, for example, like the AP exams. Teachers have to coach students to determine a pace that works for them and recognize given how much â€Å"average† time they will need to read and answer an  open-ended question. Students might practice how to survey the whole test at the beginning and then look at the number of questions, point value, and difficulty of each section. This practice will help them to budget their time. Exposure to the format of the exam will also help student distinguish the amount of time that might be needed in reading multiple choice  questions. For example, one standardized test section requires students answer   75 questions in 45 minutes. That means students have an average of 36 seconds per question. Practice can help students adjust to this speed. In addition, understanding the format can help students negotiate the layout of a test, especially if the standardized test has moved to an online platform. Online testing means a student must be proficient in keyboarding, and also know which keyboarding feature is available for use. For example, the computer-adaptive tests, like the SBAC, may not allow students to return to a section with an unanswered question.   Multiple Choice Preparation Educators can also help students practice with how tests are administered. While some of these remain pen and paper tests, other tests have moved to online testing platforms. A part of test preparation, educators may offer students  the following multiple choice question strategies: If any part of the answer is not true, then the answer is incorrect.  When there are identical responses, then neither is correct.Consider no change or none of the above as a valid answer choice.Students should eliminate and cross off those distracting answers that are absurd  or obviously incorrect.Recognize transition words that  describe relationships between ideas in choosing a response.  The stem or start of the question should agree grammatically   (same tense) with the correct answer, so students should quietly read the question aloud to test each possible response.Correct answers may offer relative qualifiers such as sometimes or often, while incorrect answers are generally  written in absolute language and do not allow for exceptions. Before taking any tests, students should know if the test gives a penalty  for incorrect responses; if there is no penalty, students should be advised to guess if they dont know the answer.    If there is a difference in the point value of a question, students should plan on how they will  spend time on the more weighted sections of the test. They should also know how to split their time between multiple choice and essay answers if that is not already separated by section in the test. Essay or Open-Ended Response Preparation Another part of test preparation is  teaching students to prepare for essays or open-ended responses. Students to write directly on paper tests, take notes or use the highlighting feature on computer tests in order to identify sections that can be used for evidence in essay responses: Follow the directions by looking carefully at keywords: Answer A  or  B vs.  A  and  B.Use facts in different ways: to compare/ contrast, in  sequence or to provide a description.Organize facts  based on headings in informational texts.Use transitions with enough context in a sentence or paragraph to make the relationships between facts clear.Suggest that  students answer easiest questions first.Suggest students write on only one side of the page.Encourage students to leave a large space at the beginning of a response, or to leave a page  in between,  in the event a student ends up with a different thesis or position or would like to add or to change details later if time permits.   When time is limited, students should draft an outline by listing key points and the order they plan to answer them.   While this would not count as a complete essay, some credit for evidence and organization may be credited.   Which Tests Are Which? Tests are often better known by their acronyms than why they are used or what they are testing. To get balanced data  from their assessments, some states may have students take  norm-referenced tests as well as  criterion-referenced tests in different grade levels. The most familiar  norm-referenced tests  are those designed to rank students  on a  bell curve The  NAEP  (The National Assessment of Educational Progress)  reports  statistical information about student performance and factors related to educational performance for the nation and for specific demographic groups in the population (e.g., race/ethnicity, gender);The SAT  (Scholastic Aptitude Test and/or  Scholastic Assessment Test);  Scores on the SAT range from 400 to 1600, combining test results from two 800-point sections: mathematics, and critical reading and writing.  The following states  have opted to use the SAT as a high school  exit exam:  Colorado,  Connecticut, Delaware, District of Columbia*, Idaho* (or ACT), Illinois, Maine*, Michigan, New Hampshire, New York, Rhode Island*. (*optional)  PSAT/NMSQT  a precursor to the SAT.  The test is composed of four sections: two Math Sections, Critical Reading, and Writing Skills used to determine eligibility and qualification for the  National Merit Scholarship Program.  Students in grades 8-1 0 are the target audience for the PSAT.  The  ACT  (American College Test) is four  content area tests  scored individually on a scale of 1–36, with the composite score as the whole number average. The ACT does have elements of  a criterion-referenced in that it also compares how a student performs compared to ACT College Readiness Standards which are regularly reviewed.  The following states  have opted to use the  ACT  as a high school  exit exam:   Colorado,  Kentucky,  Louisiana,  Mississippi,  Tennessee,  Utah. ACT Aspire  tests map learner progress from elementary grades through high school on a vertical scale which is anchored to the scoring system of the ACT. Challenges to the tradition of norm-referenced testing came with  the expansion of  criterion-referenced tests in 2009 when tests were designed to measure  the impact of the  Common Core State Standards (CCSS).These  criterion-referenced  tests determine how college and career ready a student is in English Language Arts and in mathematics.   While initially embraced by 48 states, the two testing consortiums have the remaining states committed to using their platforms: The  Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers  (PARCC) in the following states  Colorado,  District of Columbia,  Illinois,  Louisiana,  Maryland,  Massachusetts,  New Jersey, New Mexico,  Rhode IslandThe  Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium  (SBAC)  The states that use this  SBAC computer adaptive testing include:  California,  Connecticut,  Delaware,  Hawaii,  Idaho,  Iowa,  Michigan,  Montana,  Nevada, New Hampshire,  North Carolina,  North Dakota,  Oregon,  South Dakota,  U.S. Virgin Islands,  Vermont,  Washington,  West Virginia The College Board  Advanced Placement (AP)  exams  are also criterion referenced. These exams are created by the College Board as  college-level exams in specific content areas.  A high score (5) on the exam may award college credit. At the conclusion of the spring testing season, the results of all these tests are then analyzed by different stakeholders in order determine student progress, possible curriculum revision, and in some states, teacher evaluation. The analysis of these tests can guide the development of a schools educational plan for the following school year. Spring may be the season for testing in the nations middle and high schools, but preparation for an analysis of these tests are a school year long enterprise.

Food in Eritrea Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Food in Eritrea - Essay Example The fight for freedom, which lasted for approximately 30 years, left the country in a state of destruction, especially in the agricultural sector. This is due to the fact that most of the lands which could be used for farming are littered with unexploded ordinances, which pose a security hazard to the farmers (Rena, 2007). In this context, any person trying to cultivate in these lands risks the possibility of triggering the explosion of landmines, which were buried during the war, but failed to explode. Tensions that continue to exist between Ethiopia and Eritrea have contributed to more installation of these landmines as a defensive mechanism at the expense of the farming communities (Zwi, 2005). The temporary security zone, which is considered to have been the most productive agricultural land measuring approximately 25km2 remains unutilized as a result of these landmines, which have kept away more than 50000 inhabitants, who were displaced by the war, regardless of the fact that n o more fighting takes place in this area (Zwi, 2005). With these developments, food production is deemed to remain low and as such, more people will continue to be affected by extreme hunger. This is also due to the fact that the government has continued to spend a lot of the already scarce resources to finance and facilitate the war with Ethiopia. For instance, it is estimated that more than 300 000 men and women are serving in the army instead of letting them engage in farming activities (Gebre, 2009).

Private Finance Initiative Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Private Finance Initiative - Essay Example TUPE enables these individuals to enjoy the status of being public and private workers simultaneously. This arrangement is intended to relieve the government of a heavy burden of initiating and funding projects across the country. The PFI is a program that began Britain and Australia before spreading to most of the Western countries and eventually to the rest of the world. Since early 1990s, PFI has grown into one of the common ways to develop public investments1. The program is being used to develop many different types public infrastructure. With a PFI, private organizations can place bids on these infrastructure projects, and reverse the conventional trend, whereby developing public projects were solely the responsibility of the government. The private investor that emerges the winner in the bidding process is normally awarded the contract to develop and maintain the infrastructure project. FPI enables private companies to benefit from a permanent profit from such an initiative2. In most cases, governmental organizations are not ready to handle big projects, but they do want to make sure the projects are. By engaging the private sector through a PFI, this is tenable. Apart from relieving the government of the burden of laying infrastructures, a private finance initiative reduces the amount of tax being channelled to such projects. When the private investors shoulder the larger percentage of the funding, the government can then concentrate on other important projects. PFI projects In many cases, the method of construction that is implemented by governments has been based on placing the burden on the PFI contractors to design, bid and build the public assets. Under these criteria, the public organizations often come up with a design for a public infrastructure project. This work may be done by internal experts, or it may be awarded to a private company specialized in architecture. Once the plan is authorized, the government then invites bids from privately own ed construction companies, thus paving way for the winning bidder to construct the facility3. Many projects for government facilities have conventionally had extended private sector contacts to cater for maintenance. Typical cases of a PFI are court facilities and government offices that have been built on privately owned buildings. The health care industry is also not left out: many small government-owned health care facilities are operating in private sector premises. Better Service Delivery Private finance initiative has been implemented in the United Kingdom, where the government emphasized its significance and contribution toward better service delivery to citizens. In 2002, the government announced that it would engage the private sector more, especially to improve the quality of services in the healthcare industry4. The government made public its intention to ensure that quality services were achieved by approving contracts that had met the thresholds of quality. But whereas PFI can be more costly to implement as compared to conventional government funding, since public institutions enjoy lower lending rates than the private investors, most of the governments around the world have held the belief that the increased costs of amassing the needed finances by the private sector will remain etched in the better services for a far longer period of time5. Additionally, proponents of a PFI believe that there will be efficiency in savings. Market forces have also proved the government wrong: private companies have

Product Life Cycle Of Cadbury Dairy Milk

Product Life Cycle Of Cadbury Dairy Milk Cadbury chocolates was started in Birmingham in 1824 by John Cadbury. Chocolate in those days was a very elitist product. Cadbury Dairy Milk came up with the mix of milk and chocolate tray which is pretty much how the product still is. There has been no drastic change in the recipe of the product but the packaging and the representation and prominence of the glass and half of milk logo has changed over a period of time. Cadbury India began its operations in 1948 by importing chocolates and then re-packing them before distribution in the Indian market. Today, Cadbury has five company-owned manufacturing facilities at Thane, Induri (Pune) and Malanpur (Gwalior), Bangalore and Baddi (Himachal Pradesh) and 4 sales offices (New Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkota and Chennai). Its corporate office is in Mumbai.Worldwide, (http://www.iloveindia.com/economy-of-india/top-50-companies/cadbury-india.html) A Timeline: 1904   A new recipe is perfected by George Cadbury for milk chocolate. 1905   Cadbury launches Dairy Milk onto the market a new milk chocolate that contains far more milk than anything previously tasted and with a unique creamy taste. 1913   Dairy Milk becomes Cadburys best selling line. Mid 1920s   Dairy Milk becomes UK brand leader a position it still enjoys today. 1928   Fruit Nut is introduced as a variation of Dairy Milk. The glass and a half advertising slogan is introduced. 1933   WholeNut is added to the Dairy Milk family. 1948   Cadbury Dairy Milk is sold in India 1998   Dairy Milk is re-launched with the new and modern pack design, but its recipe and unique taste are still very similar to the original recipe. 2005   Cadbury Dairy Milk celebrates its 100th birthday. (http://www.innovation.cadbury.com/allaboutus/ourbrands/featurebrands/Pages/CadburyDairyMilk2.aspx?TabIndex=1) Brand Identity : Kapferers model Stage in the Product Life Cycle Cadbury Dairy Milk is in the maturity stage of the product Life cycle. It currently has a market share of 70% in the chocolate market and is way ahead of its competitors. There is a high degree of brand awareness. The colour purple and the glass and half full logo is amongst the most recognised logos and the association of the two with Cadbury Dairy Milk is synonymous. Market Scenario/Challenges According to AC Nielson study of 2007: Facts Figures The Indian Chocolate market is estimated to beat around 1500crores. It is growing at the rate of 18-20% per annum With 72% of the market share in India, Cadbury is the market leader. Companies The 2 main competitors in the Indian market that Cadbury faces any competition from are Nestle and Amul. There are several new and local brands like Candico, Sweet World etc. which are trying to make its presence felt. Consumer Trends The Mithaai or sweet has been the tradition in India so far. Chocolates are noow trying to break into that league and hence faces stiff competition more from this product category than its immediate competitors. Chocolates are more of an impulse buy. Consumers are preferring chocolates to Mithaai because of proper packaging, longer shelf life, mid-range pricing and convenience. Consumers have started showing interest in not just milk chocolates but other varieties like Dark Chocolate etc. One of the major challenges that Cadbury Dairy Milk faces is a decline in sales due to new variants being introduced in the market by other brands which could result in the product moving from maturity to decline stage. Another major challenge comes from a different product category altogether which is the Indian Sweets or Mithaai. Steps taken by brand at each stage- at a communication and product level Introduction Cadbury Dairy Milk advertising has always depicted a rich tapestry of human emotions and relationships. In the 1980s, it was positioned as the perfect expression of love, captured in memorable copy: sometimes Cadbury can say it better than words. During the early1990s, Cadbury Dairy Milk emphasised its international identity, communicating that it was the real taste of chocolate. In 1994 came the path-breaking real taste of life campaign. The ad featuring a woman running on the cricket field celebrating the victory is still strongly etched in our mind even today. This campaign created a dramatic shift in the way chocolates were perceived. Cadbury Dairy Milk has increasingly become trapped as a reward or bribe for children and this campaign unshackled the brand by re-positioning it to the free-child in every adult. Cadbury Dairy Milk redefined itself as the perfect expression of spontaneous, shared good feelings, providing the real taste of life experience. The strategy paid off: Bran d Cadbury grew by over 50% in sales volumes. (Super brands) Growth Then in 1998, the next stage of growth for the brand dealt with popularising consumption in a social context, especially in more traditional settings like weddings. With the campaign Khaanein waallon ko khaanein ka bahana chahiye featuring Cyrus Broacha, Cadbury Dairy Milk aimed to substantially increase penetration levels. The campaign was launched in tandem with the award winning Kuchh khaas haicampaign and the media strategy was to let the two co-exist towards a common vision: A Cadbury in every pocket. The brand penetrated into smaller towns and sales volumes grew by 40% (Source: Internal Sales Data). (Super brands) Crisis Management The worm controversy resulted in Cadburys brand image taking a beating. They had to recall a batch of chocolates. Instead of taking any short term measures, Cadbury used this opportunity to take action and rebuild the trust of people. They launched a project Vishwas which educated retailers and wholesalers on storage and other aspects apart from educating consumers. The other major step was to change the packaging. The companys repackaging exercise, which used a combination of packaging technologies, was unprecedented in the category. With the redesigned packaging in place, the company decided to communicate the measures it had taken to safeguard quality standards. To add credibility to its pitch, Cadbury took recourse to Amitabh Bachchans deep baritone. This was the first time that a celebrity was used to endorse Cadbury Dairy Milk. The commercial did wonders to consumer confidence. A series of ads with Bachchan including Pappu Paas ho Gaya to Miss Palampur brought back the lost credibility of the people. With Bachchan they also launched their new positioning of Kuch Meetha Ho Jaaye bringing in the tradition of celebrating a joyous occasion in India with sweets and now Cadbury Dairy Milk in particular. Maturity The focus for a period shifted to taking the concept of Kuch Meetha Ho Jaaye further. The Pehli Tareekh Hai campaigns talked about the importance of having Dairy Milk and celebrating on getting your pay on pay-day. The ads had a very retro-feel to it and did click with the audience. But, it is the recent string of Shubh Aarambh ads that have brought back the old charm of Cadbury Dairy Milk with its very interesting insight of mixing the traditional with the new age. Summary Cadbury Dairy Milk has adapted itself to the Indian market quite impressively. From making a sweet eating nation to switch to chocolates to becoming the market leader, Cadbury Dairy Milk has done it all because of the emotional connect it established with the consumers. Its communication also always focused on the emotional aspects and feelings of life apart from spontaneity. Its communication has always showcased its values and personality. In my opinion, the Kuch Meetha Ho Jaaye concept is a goldmine which can be used in a variety of ways in a country like India.

Mitsubishi Corporation Analysis

Capital structure in Japan has been noted to be more highly leveraged than comparative North American firms which brings to mind the question: how is it that Japanese firms have been able to take on such high levels of debt? The answer lies in the environment that Japanese firms have been operating in. More specifically, the levels of debt are likely to have been induced by the lack of alternative sources of finance because of the effect of government regulations, and the different ownership structure in Japanese firms (with institutional lenders being major equity holders). So, the higher leverage has been a consequence of the conditions that Japanese business face-with a more pronounced effect (due to relationships) in companies which are in corporate groups known as keiretsu. These conditions were characteristic of the past. As the benefits of debt are well known in finance theory (tax shields, signaling etc.), the lack of independence and efficiency in decision making borne by Japanese managers seem to be the costs. The result for some firms has been a reduction in debt levels to those more resembling U.S. companies. The questions now have become: What is the optimal debt level for a Japanese firm? Should firms still be taking advantage of the benefits of their keiretsu relationship that have allowed them to take on such levels of debt? Our analysis focuses on Mitsubishi Corporation, a core conglomerate that is part of the larger Mitsubishi Group keiretsu having the capital structure characteristics mentioned above. The report will first explore the circumstances that may have induced Mitsubishi to its present capital structure, then look at more recent events and trends that may affect future financing decisions, and conclude with the Mitsubishi capital structure/optimum debt level analysis. Japanese corporations have outpaced rival firms in the US and Europe in terms of capital investment throughout the 1970†³s and into the 1980†³s. One of the main reasons behind the high level of investment is the better access to capital that Japanese firms have compared to their western counterparts-the result is that Japanese firms seem to have more debt than their U.S. counterparts. A common motive for taking on more debt is for the tax advantages, but there is little to suggest that there is much difference in the taxation systems between the two countries to support such a reason . The most likely factor for this trend in Japan has been the result of the close relationships that Japanese firms have with each other in a keiretsu. In Japan the majority of companies are formed into enterprise groups called keiretsu (which translates as â€Å"series† or â€Å"group†. The basic features of a keiretsu are as follows: cross-share holding agreements, interlocking directorates, intra-group financing, joint investing, and a consistent pattern of dealing among group members. The largest of the keiretsu are Mitsubishi, Mitsui, Sumitomo, Fuji, Daiichi Kangyo, and Sanwa (the latter three are centered around Japan†s largest commercial banks. Together, these six corporate groups account for a quarter of total Japanese business assets. Prior to the Second World War, several large monopolistic companies dominated Japanese industry. They were known as zaibatsu – the dominant four were Mitsubishi, Mitsui, Sumitomo and Yasuda. During the post-war Occupation the holding companies of the zaibatsu that controlled member firms were dissolved. Many firms subsequently regrouped to create the keiretsu we see today. Types of keiretsu: Vertical and Horizontal Vertical keiretsu are arranged hierarchically along production and distribution lines and organized under a principal manufacturer. The benefits of this network include increased efficiency and customer service, decreased distribution costs, simplified marketing channels, rationalized inventory controls and the facilitation of effective information sharing between members. Also, the principal manufacturers receive the benefit of being in a dominant position, which creates a high degree of bargaining power. Horizontal keiretsu are large groups of Japanese companies in a wide range of industries, organized around a commercial bank. Direct competition is avoided between member firms by only having one company in any line of business. The success of this type of keiretsu is attributed to their cross- shareholding and the availability of bank loans to their members. This is supplemented with personnel exchanges and consensus decision making between member firms. Being in a horizontal keiretsu also means that a stable core of long-term shareholders is in place for a company. For our purposes we will be focusing on the capital structure and other features of firms in a horizontal keiretsu. The economic environment that Japanese firms operated in favored highly leveraged capital structures. The following are some of the factors, besides belonging to a keiretsu, that have had an effect on a Japanese firm†s capital structure. The reluctance of Japanese managers to raise equity capital stems from the operations of the Japanese stock markets. Firstly, the Tokyo Stock Exchange is less stringent on disclosure requirements as compared to the NYSE, for example, which causes sharp asymmetric information differences between corporate insiders and the market. The result of this asymmetry is a severe underpricing of new share offerings and a reluctance to issue on management†s part. Firms, therefore, had a preference for bank debt which was less likely to suffer from such pricing effects. Secondly, equity has been an expensive form of finance in the past. The notion of issuing shares at market value is a recent phenomenon whereas traditionally firms issued equity at a historical par value of 50 yen with a fixed dividend. Investors typically demanded a 20 to 30 percent annual dividend on the par value (in essence the instrument was a preferred share), which were paid out of after-tax cash flows. Loans on the other hand were easily obtained through an affiliated bank at reasonable interest rates, and provided a tax shield through the deductible interest payments. Government Regulations and the Bond Market Table 1 shows how the domestic bond market in Japan began to open up during the 1980†³s. Until that time, strict bond issuing criteria that applied internationally kept most firms out of the domestic and foreign bond markets. Government regulations worked against issuing corporate bonds. The government saw corporate bonds as a competitive threat to the its own bonds since interest rates would have to be raised in order for the government†s bonds to compete with those of the top corporations. It wasn†t until 1985 that unsecured straight-debt corporate bonds were even issued. These conditions meant that firms had a reliance on their bank for debt financing; and as a result of their close relationships to banks, had a lower cost of capital and the ability to invest more than those who did not. Structure of Corporate Ownership in Japan The structure of corporate ownership in Japan is quite different compared to their counterparts in the West, with ownership being highly concentrated in Japan. Japanese laws allow institutional investors to exert more control over firms and their management inducing them to seek higher levels of share ownership. Indeed, there is a striking difference between Japanese and US corporate ownership. Ownership by financial institutions (particularly commercial banks) is far greater in Japan than in the US. Japanese commercial banks and insurance companies hold approximately two to three times the number of outstanding shares of public firms than their US counterparts do. On top of being a predominant shareholder, financial institutions play the simultaneous roles of also being the largest creditors of the firms as well being an important long-term commercial business partner. For example, it has been shown that out of 344 manufacturing corporations, financial institutions own 34.48% of the common equity and individuals own 29.53% . Therefore, many Japanese firms have access to more debt since financial institutions have highly concentrated ownership in firms. Ownership concentration does not differ significantly between keiretsu and independent Japanese firms . With high ownership concentration and cross-share holding by banks, suppliers and customers, keiretsu firms are better able to monitor decisions of firms within the group and direct management†s actions to benefit the whole and to act as a collective rather than just being contractual business partners. During the high growth era, the government of Japan†s Ministry of Finance directed investment to high growth industries. To ensure that investment capital was available to firms in these industries, implicit guarantees on the liabilities of financial and non-financial corporations were given to lenders. The provision of a safety net for the loans made the banks eager to lend money to finance rapid expansion in these industries, and the corporations willing to borrow it. Banks were also threatened by market bonds since they posed direct conflict to their business in two ways. First, there was a fear that interest rates on bank deposits would have to be raised from their artificially low rates to keep funds from migrating to other investment instruments. Second, banks did not want to lose their traditional customers for loans to the capital market. Because of their presence in the management and the board of directors in firms within the keiretsu structure, they were able to effectively keep these companies financing their operations with loans. This was relatively easy since most firms could not issue bonds anyhow until recently. The keiretsu system helped to reduce many of the direct and indirect costs faced by Western firms, which may have allowed firms to raise their debt levels. A major benefit arising from keiretsu affiliation is the reduction in costs of financial distress for member firms thus allowing them to take on a higher debt to equity ratio than otherwise possible. This is mainly attributed to keiretsu banking relationships and the consequent high levels of share ownership by financial institutions. Since a Japanese keiretsu is primarily financed by its main bank, to which a firm has close ties to, the extent of financial distress is greatly reduced. Hypothetically, when a firm within a keiretsu is entering financial distress, its main bank will coordinate rescue efforts by arranging loans from other banks as well as itself. In extreme cases, the bank will even find a company within the same keiretsu to merge with the distressed firm. In the event of a bankruptcy, the main bank will bail out the keiretsu firm by absorbing all losses by taking a subordinated position to other debt holders, eliminating the need for squabbling between the other claimants. The other features of the keiretsu, namely cross-ownership of shares and intra-group financing, also decrease the cost of financial distress. Since all firms within a keiretsu have some sort of stake in the distressed firm, it is in their best interest to try to keep that firm in operation . Aid from companies in the keiretsu can come in the form of stretched receivables, favorable transfer pricing and direct management incentives. To decrease the probability of bankruptcy and to increase the likelihood of recovery by a financially distressed firm, it would be ideal to expand, invest, and allow their organizations to grow. This is consistent among keiretsu firms since in times of financial distress, they tend to invest 46 percent more compared to non-keiretsu firms . Firms in financial distress generally have problems in raising capital, which may be in part due to a free rider problem. Firms with diffuse groups of creditors are faced with this problem because individual debt holders would not be willing to refinance the firm or renegotiate debt claims even though it would be in their collective best interests to do so. This problem is absent however, when a keiretsu firm is primarily financed with bank loans from a single creditor. Free rider problems are less severe or eliminated in keiretsu organizations. In addition, keiretsu firms tend to stay out of Japanese bankruptcy courts. Since financially distressed keiretsu firms are bailed out internally, the direct costs of bankruptcy such as legal and advisory fees, are vastly reduced. American firms on the other hand see the majority of disputes, arising from financial distress, ending up in bankruptcy courts. This problem in the US corporate system can be partially attributed to the wide use of bond financing. A multitude of bondholder claims are more difficult to restructure than a single bank loan and US bankruptcy legislation prevents companies from changing the principal, interest, and maturity without unanimous consent from bondholders. Therefore, keiretsu firms do not incur these large costs of financial distress, which can reach up to five percent of firm value, incurred by their US counterparts. In the end, the lower costs of financial distress is another reason why Japanese firms can take on more debt and thus lower their costs of capital even more with increased utilization of their tax shields. A financial keiretsu, through its network of corporate cross-shareholdings and strong relationship with a main bank, serves as an effective system for monitoring the actions of a member firm. Member firms are in unique positions to serve as mutual monitors because the success of a single firm is in the best interests of the entire keiretsu. As keiretsu firms typically have seats on other member firm†s board of directors, they can make sure that the actions of management are in accord with the interests of the entire group. The main bank acts as the primary lender and as a major shareholder, also tends to have its own executives sit on the board. This dual role ensures that the banks will be looking out for the interests of both bond and equity holders of the firm. The costs of monitoring are not as high as they are in the US system for any one party since the ownership is not as diluted. Hence, each member has a signficant interest in monitoring the firm†s activities and the free rider problem is alleviated. This system of corporate governance effectively makes sure that management pursues long run value creation. Agency costs are reduced in a keiretsu because of the unique relationships within the group. Shareholders cannot participate in moral hazard activities such as transferring risk to debt holders or transferring wealth from them by encouraging management to take on negative NPV projects. Both the higher level of debt and the structure of ownership, i.e. the bank being a creditor-owner and the high proportion of shares being cross-held within a keiretsu, serve the purpose of keeping managerial interests in accord with the group. The lower agency costs also results from the fact that most of the debt is short-term and secured.